Peer Group Relationships in Age Groups

Peer Group Relationships in Age Groups In the media, peer groups are made out to be the bad kids around the back gates at school they are publicised as those who make teenagers take up smoking, drugs and underage drinking but is this reality or the media hand picking out the sections to make a story? During this dissertation, I will look at what age peer groups are most influential; when are they a negative influence and at what age people most depend on their peer group. I chose this topic as it is an area of interest and relates to my psychology studies, I want to pursue this further at university and it will give me a deeper understanding in psychology and my prior knowledge will give me an advantage. This topic covers both psychology and sociology which will give me an insight to a new area as well as Furthering Pre-Knowledge. I will use many different resources during this essay including the internet, books, journals and e-resources; I will keep a bibliography of all references as well as in text citations. So, what defines a peer group? Collins English Dictionary puts it nicely as a social group composed of individuals of approximately the same age, whereas The American Heritage New Dictionary of Cultural Literacy adds a little extra by explaining it is a group of people who share certain social characteristics, such as age, class, occupation, or education, and interact on a level of equality. An individual may be a member of several peer groups, including friends, schoolmates, and co-workers. By looking into the effects of peer groups and their importance on different ages, I will be able to see whether all they are important for is making teenagers go down the wrong road, or whether their uses start at a much earlier age and are crucial to our development, new views show that a childs early relationships have a large effect on later growth and development. During this dissertation I will look at both sides to determine the age when peer groups are at their most influential and fundamental toward people focussing on the differences between peer groups in young children and those in adolescence. Peer Age Relationships Some believe that peer groups are a great participating factor in building our cognitive development; others think it lures teenagers into a detrimental environment. Edwards (1992) said, the increasing use of preschools, organized playgroups, and child care arrangements has brought the age of access to peer relations down near the beginning of life (p.197) whereas Erwin (1998) said, childrens earliest relationships are normally with the primary caregiver, usually the mother, and the rest of the immediate family. Edwards believes that peer groups are fundamental from the very early stage of pre-school to gain the ability to succeed in life, whereas Erwin believes young peer relationships are only with immediate family and do not strengthen until adolescence. How are peer groups defined in both young childhood and adolescence? By establishing this, I can look deeper into the two age categories and delve into how peer groups affect children in these groups and the use of their peer gr oup. Young Children Some theorists, such as Bowlby, Freud and Rutter suggest that early childhood is a sensitive period in life for social development; they also believe that certain types of peer experiences during this period can have an impact on the childrens later behaviour. Theorists such as Berndt, Hoyle and Bulowski theorize that one of the most influential factors that could have an effect on the stability of friendships is the initial quality of the friendship. Accordingly, friendships that have a positive, solid foundation will be more likely to withstand the test of time compared to friendships based on more negative attributes (e.g. mutual aggression, control) (Human behaviour, 2011). Young Children Infants People usually think that infants are not old enough to understand peers and they show no preference to people, many parents believe this is their only chance to hand pick their childs friends, but typically, infants orient toward peers by 2 months of age, make simple gestures by 3 to 4 months, and direct smiles and vocalizations to peers by 6 months, meaning that infants are aware of their peers and can distinguish and make decision, they are just more subtle at this age (Vincze, 1971). Among infants and toddlers, friendship has often been defined in terms of peer familiarity, consistency of interactions between the partners, and/or the mutual display of positive affect, sharing, and plays. For example, in research conducted by Howes (1983), dyads were considering friends if: at least 50% of their social initiations resulted in social interaction (mutual preference) one or more exchanges of positive affect occurred between partners (mutual enjoyment) One or more episodes of reciprocal or complementary play occurred between partners Howes found that 60% of toddler friends sustained their relationship over a period of months, and in 1992, Howes reported that toddlers friendships (particularly cross-gender friendships) often lasted well into the pre-school years. As said earlier, Erwin (1998) disagrees with this research and believes childrens earliest relationships are normally with the primary caregiver usually the mother and the rest of the immediate family. During the first two years of life, infants do not spontaneously seek out other children for interaction or for pleasure, even though six month old infants may look at and vocalize to other infants, they do not initiate reciprocal social play with each other (Human behaviour, 2011). Ross (1990) has shown that toddlers peer relationships are unique, in the sense that both partners tend to adjust their interactions they conduct with each other, and interact in ways that are different from the ways they treat other children (Young childrens peer relations and social competence, handbook of research on the education of young children, 2006). Young Children Pre School Years Vandell Mueller (1980) think that by as early as 2 years old, children prefer certain peers over others as play partners. Between two and five years of age, childrens interactions with each other become more sustained, social and complex. Solitary play is dominant among three year olds, but this strategy shifts to group play by five years (Human behaviour, 2011). It has been theorized by Howes (1992) that at this age, children have a level of emotional maturity to a degree that enables them to form close ties with their peers. Because pre-schoolers are better able to conceptualize, reflect on, and describe their friendships when they are at this age when compared to infants and toddlers, researchers have been able to use childrens self-reports to assess friendships (Price Ladd, 1986), although other theorists would argue that although they have a better understanding of their friendships, they still havent reached a full awareness of their peers and therefore you cannot rely on sel f-reports from 2 year olds, although, by the second and third years, toddlers begin to engage in more sophisticated forms of games and repricol play which shows that they are gaining peer awareness. The significance of peer relationships increase and change with age, peer relationships become increasingly stable, intimate and personally significant by 3 years, children usually have 22 contacts and Erwin (1998) believes children start to use the term best friend from the age of 4 and Hayes (1978) also found that preschool children could not only name their best friends they could also articulate reasons for liking them. Adolescence Adolescence is generally the term used for teenagers, the time when children are going through the most changes including puberty. It can be broken up into three sub categories, early (11-13 years); middle (14-18 years); and Late adolescence (19-24 years). The adolescent years have traditionally been treated (and still are by many authors) as an area of interest distinct from the rest of childhood (Erwin 1998). The sociology of adolescence has been dominated by a social problems approach that is, basic research has centred on those phenomena which appear to characterize adolescence as a period of individual crises (Credo reference, 26th Feb 2011). Relationships during this era have often been examined as entities separate from and largely discontinuous with those that went before, despite the glaring obvious proposition that the groundwork for transition in adolescence must have been laid in childhood (Coleman, 1995). During adolescence, peer relationships become more important and influential than parent relations. Early Adolescence Social relations are organized around the peer group rather than families or individual friends. (Credo reference, 22nd Feb 2011). The rapid growth of the teenage population as experienced in the 1990s has led to a rise in adolescent peer groups simply because the sheer increase in the number of peers that young people have has increased. (Steinberg, 1996). As the importance of the family in the adolescents life declines, whether it is from a divorce or from normal growth, friends move to the forefront. Friends are usually peers, that is, people of the same age, with similar backgrounds and interests. Peer group membership answers adolescents concerns about many things including their changing bodies. Discussing their fears with other young people experiencing similar physical changes and asking similar questions about their impact helps adolescents to accept their physical development. In several ways, the group reassures the individuals that they are acceptable and not abnormal. Pe er groups can help adolescents accept their physical development by devising means to hide it. Body differences appear less different when people dress alike. Each group has its own look, from sophisticated dressy, to designer labels, to ratty jeans and T-shirts, to whatever is handy. Each group presents an identifiable image through a style of dressing that clearly states what is acceptable. (Kaplan, 1993). Acknowledging that by early adolescence, peer groups have a significant influence on childrens behaviour Middle Adolescence Peer pressure is heightened during this stage and is mainly seen as a negative influence that provokes behaviour such as underage drinking and sex. Some researchers believe the children in this stage which are part of the in crowd are more susceptible to peer pressure than those who friends with peers who are kind, nice and well-liked (Science daily, 23rd Feb 2011). In a contemporary society, peer groups have become an increasingly important context in which adolescents spend time. Modernization has led to more and more age segregation-in schools, in the workplace, and in the community. Todays teenagers spend far more time in the exclusive company of their peers than their counterparts did in the past (Steinberg, 1996). Becoming a peer group member meets many adolescent concerns about social expectations as well. Late Adolescence Many teens try to balance school work with part-time jobs, dating and other activities. Todays teens also deal with an uncertain national economy, violence, AIDS, and other sexually transmitted diseases. With all this, teens lack the experience and the coping and problem-solving skills that would help them make good decisions about handling these stresses. Without such skills and given the almost complete absence of their families support, teens are at the mercy of their friends immature ideas about how to solve problems (Kaplan, 1993). Young people need to develop independence from their parents. They need to learn decision-making skills, to act on their own and learn to live with the consequences. But young teenagers find these goals confusing and the ways of achieving them even more so. They feel dependent on their parents because they privately know that they lack the confidence and the skills to succeed in the outside world alone. Adolescents, however, deeply resent this need an d view it as a sign of weakness, often covering up with arguments and impulsive behaviour (Kaplan 1993). Development Young Children Peer groups can have an effect on a young childs sense of well-being and belonging which are increasingly important concerns as education and child care settings have become a significant role in childrens daily lives throughout the world. Child rearing is acknowledged as a collaborative endeavour between families and early childhood education and care institutions (OECD 2006). Peer relations are high priority because of the fun and pleasure a child will get from being in the company of other children, which is most evident in play. Non-parental early childhood arrangements have proliferated because parents need to be employed and cannot simultaneously care for their children. Although, throughout the 21st century, these arrangements of early childhood care are seen as a means of enrichment for the child to help establish their developmental needs by meeting new people and other children to gain dependence from their parents and that is where peer groups start to enhance a child from one of the earliest stages in our lives. These adaptations have created the need for early years practitioners to think and act in new ways to help establish this development. Positive attachment relationships with caregivers influence childrens formation of positive relationships with peers and children who are in less conflict with peers are more likely to form positive relationships with caregivers (Howes, 2008). Interactions with peers (meaning other children) develop through multiple and recursive interactive experiences which are well scripted social exchanges that are repeated many times with only slight variation (Bretherton, 1985). From this, the child forms an internal representation of a relationship with a playmate, and from those playmate relationships friendships could evolve children who engage in repeated and complex interactions with a given playmate are more likely to represent the partner as a friend and the content of these interactions will influence the quality of the resulting friendship (Kernan, 2010). Factors affecting peer development A childs participation in peer activities and their social ability relies on a number of contributing factors which can either have a positive effect on their ability to create new peers. Relationships with caregivers As mentioned earlier, children who have strong attachments to their primary caregiver are concurrently and longitudinally more socially competent with peers even when controlling for parental attachment quality (Howes 1999; Pianta et al 2002). We sometimes incorrectly assume this is because sociable children from good relationships with all people, peers and caregivers. However, in order to master peer relationships the child needs to be able to explore and experiment with peers whilst making forays back to a trusted adult, if a child feels valued and supported they are more likely to make these steps and form stronger relationships, but those children who dont form a relationship with their caregiver are more susceptible to pick fights, refuse to let somebody play or hide from a bully as they dont believe they have the support of the adult (Kernan, 2010). In the introduction, it was mentioned that the first peer relationship a child makes is with their primary caregiver, whether thi s is with their mother, father, or teacher it is essential that children create the strongest bond possible with this figure in order to have the confidence to establish new bonds with other people including other adults and children their own age. When children are new to peer groups they dont know the games or the players which puts them at a risk of exclusion or withdrawing from already formed groups, this makes them miss the opportunity to play with others and develop new social interaction skills with other peers. This makes the time when a child enters a new environment such as a classroom an important setting for the development of peer relations. Setting A childs setting is a main contribution to their social development, for example, imagine a classroom setting in which most of the interactions were harmonious and respectful, in which children and adults worked together on projects, in which a child who was distressed or frustrated was comforted and helped, and in which laughter and other expressions of positive affect predominated. Contrast this with a classroom setting in which children were ridiculed for being different, talked to and touched in a harsh rejecting manner, competed rather than helped each other, and the general tone included mistrust and anger. We can imagine that the social development of children would take two different paths in these two extremes. Because encounters with peers become experiences of living within a group for the child, it is impossible to understand the social development of a child as isolated from the group (Kernan, 2010). Time and permission The main place where child to child relations are made are during play, which means the caregiver must create an environment that values play so they can have the physical space, materials and encouragement to pretend and play together. If a child is playing with another child and this is interrupted and they are separated, it may result in the children thinking it wasnt allowed, so it is essential that this importance doesnt fade into the background. Howes and Wishard (2004) say that the amount of time children engage in complex pretend play has decreased over the 20 years they have been observing in local programmes. This decrease is consistent with anecdotal reports that programmes are providing relatively little unstructured time for children to play. Without the time and permission to have play with other children, this could have a negative effect on a childs social and peer building skills. Strategies focussed on peer building The Government published its first national play strategy, earmarking  £235 million to: Make sure that every residential area has a variety of high-quality places for all children to play safely and free of charge à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ as a direct response to demands from children, young people and their families for better play facilities. (Department for Children, Schools and Families, 2008) This strategy will help to raise awareness for the profile of plays importance in childrens development, and people from all background have access to this funding. Although, despite the 2004 Children Acts statutory duty for government bodies to take into account the views of children when planning services, there is little evidence of this in this play strategy. 9 000 children were involved in the consultation of the strategy, but this was done online and the ages of the children were not given, and it is highly unlikely that the younger children who will be most affected by the scheme would have been part of this consultation. There were 42 800 respondents aged 19 and under that gave their opinions about services in the areas in which they lived, although this may be applauded, the views of the local population of more than 130 000 children from birth to seven years making up 39 per cent of those 19 and under were not surveyed. The BIG lottery fund is a grant making non-departmental public body in the United Kingdom created by the Government to administer funding to suitable causes following the creation of the National Lottery. This organisation decided to give  £155 million to Childrens Play initiative which was based on the recommendations of the 2004 play review Getting Serious About Play which defined play as what children and young people do when they follow their own ideas, in their own way and for their own reasons the report also mentioned how play was a key factor in development for a childs social wellbeing and their ability to form peers both early and late in life (2004). When the programme finished, 90% of Local Authorities reported that the programme had raised the profile of play, 48%of portfolios said BIG funding had helped them to secure extra funds and unexpected outcomes achieved included enhanced parental engagement, increased social and community cohesion (BIG lottery fund, 2006) There are also courses available for those to study child development and play to help enhance the social skills of children and so those primary caregivers like nursery nurses will now have a bigger insight into exactly what a child needs and how to achieve that to help them gain the skills needed to have the confidence to build more relationships when they advance to the older stages and have to gain ore peer relationships. Northumbria University currently have 12 courses available for early years, these include early years and disability studies to learning in families, schools and beyond. Most of these courses contain topics related to play and child development. The development of courses and funding which is now available shows how early childhood has become more recognisable as a major stepping stone in the formation of peer groups and their ability to give us fundamental skills we will recall on later in life. Peer Pressure Adolescence Most commonly, peer pressure is seen as the time in our lives when peers have the most influence over us Google will bring up over 3 million results for the search peer pressure. There are links including ways to deal with peer pressure, definitions and past newspaper articles that are related to peer pressure. 9 out of 10 teenagers will give in to peer pressure whether it is simply wearing similar clothes or under age alcohol and sex. Peer pressure can have a devastating effect on those in adolescence but it also beneficial by getting a teenager to do something they want to, but just dont have the courage or confidence for. Positive effects of peer pressure Friendship Amongst peers, teenagers will find friendships and acceptance and share experiences with these other teenagers that will build lasting bonds. Adolescence is a tough time of a persons life, you go through puberty start new schools and have exams and have to make some life changing decisions, having friends around you whilst going through this stage can have a positive effect on you. Studies such as the Effects of Friendship on Adolescents Self-Esteem by Thomas J Berndt and Keunho Keefe show that friends can build self esteem and bring out the confidence in people. When in a strange environment, it has been proven that when accompanied by a friend, your heart rate lowers. Positive Examples Peers can set good examples for each others. Having peers who are committed to doing well in school or to doing their best in a sport can influence a person to also be more goal-oriented. The same applies for peers who are kind and loyal which can influence them to build these qualities in themselves. Peers do not have to be somebody you know, for example watching Tom Daley diving at the Olympics could encourage another person to aspire to be like Tom. A teenager is more likely to copy somebody their own age than somebody older, so having a positive role model from the same age group (e.g. Taylor Swift for singing) is a type of peer pressure than can have a positive effect on somebody. Feedback and advice Adolescents are going to listen their peers, who can give them advice and feedback on trying new ideas explore beliefs and discus problems. They can help them to make decisions such as what courses to take, what haircut to get and issues such as how to deal with family arguments. This advice could help a teen through a rough patch and help them make life changing decisions for the better. It can encourage them to try new things, for example joining the school gym or art club. Socializing Peer groups give opportunities to people to try out new social skills, allows people to get involved with others friends of friends so to speak and gives them a chance to expand their circle of friends. Peers can help each other to build relationships or to work out issues. Encouragement Peers can encourage other peers to work hard to hit specific targets, such as getting a solo in the school concert or they can encourage you to study and aim high for your exams as well as listen and support them when they are upset or troubled and they can empathize with each other when they have experienced similar difficult situations. New experiences Some teens could be involved in clubs, sports or religious groups and they could help other teens to get involved in these too, helping them to gain new experiences, new likes and dislikes. Negative effects of peer pressure Although there are positive effects to having peers in adolescence, there are also negatives and a lot of stresses which can come from peers during this age. They can pressure people into doing something they are uncomfortable with such as shoplifting or doing drugs. These pressures can be expressed openly for example have a drink, its only one drink, everybody else is doing it or it could be more indirectly by simply providing alcohol at a party. But most peer pressure is much more subtle, without talking, a peer could let somebody know how they must dress, talk or the attitudes they should have towards school, parents and teachers in order to win their approval. This pressure to conform can be much more powerful than the more direct pressure; they dont want to look awkward or uncomfortable, so when unsure of what to do in a situation, they naturally look to others for cues about what is and what isnt acceptable. Drugs Peer influences have been found to be amongst the strongest predictors of drug use during adolescence. It has been argued that peers initiate drug use by providing, modelling and shaping attitudes to drugs. There was a study done by Farrell and White to determine how much peer pressure affected adolescent drug use, they included factors such as family are you more likely to conform with drug users if you were from a single parent family, no father or lived with a step parent. The results showed that although those who were living without a father figure were more likely to participate in drug use, it could not outweigh the strong relations between peer variables and the frequency of drug use found within the study, which replicates the findings of previous studies that have also found peer variables to be amongst the strongest predictors of adolescents drug use. Although, drugs are not just marijuana or heroin and other types of really bad illegal substances, drugs also include alco hol and cigarettes. Underage drinking is one of the leading causes of teenage death it makes you think irrationally, drink and drive or even binge drink until you are unconscious; all of these effects of alcohol usage increase the chances of ending up in hospital or six feet under. Although, peer pressure is not the only factor leading to underage drinking, there are other influences such as relationships with parents, parental or sibling drinking and the media. Underage smoking is a common peer pressure problem; someone who starts smoking at the age of 15 is three times more likely to die due to cancer than someone who started in their late twenties. According to a two year study by Carlos Bolanos, teenage smoking can lead to depression in adulthood. Teenagers are 80% more likely to try smoking underage if their friends and family also smoke; this is an immense amount of peer pressure to put onto an adolescent. Sex Many teens particular males feel the pressure to have sex before they are ready. According to research 63% of teens believe that waiting is a good idea, but few of those actually do wait. 1 in 3 boys aged 15-17 feel the pressure to have sex, often from their male friends, whereas only 23% of females within the same age range say that they feel the same pressure. This factor is what is making schools rethink about the delivery of sex education, and the need to introduce sex education at a much younger age. Although, there are other contributing factors such sexually transmitted diseases and the rise in teenage pregnancy, reports in 2003 showed that 1 in 7 sexually active 14 year olds have been pregnant, the report did not say whether they had continued with the pregnancy. (Colin, 2003) Conclusion

Prostate Cancer

PROSTATE cancer (PCa) is one of the biggest threats to men’s health. It tends to develop in men over the age of fifty and is considered as one of the most common cancers among males around the globe. It is estimated that prostate cancer kills one man almost every 19 minutes while a new case is detected every two and a half minutes. According to the Philippine Cancer Society Inc. ’s (PCSI) population-based cancer registry, 10 men out of 100,000 will suffer from prostate cancer. In recent years, this statistic has translated to an estimated 4,254 prostate cancer patients in the Philippines.Sadly, most of them are unaware of the symptoms of how they can be tested for it or of how the disease can be treated. This is unfortunate because – like most cancers – the earlier prostate cancer is diagnosed, the greater the chances of it being successfully treated. With this alarming number of prostate cancer patients, June has been declared as Prostate Cancer Awareness Month. It is a month dedicated for men to be made aware that â€Å"the silent-killer† doesn’t really have to kill. If they know about it, they can win against it.Prostate cancer is a form of cancer that develops in the prostate, an accessory sex gland in the male reproductive system. Most prostate cancers are slow growing, but some can be very aggressive. Prostate cancer may cause pain, difficulty in urination, problems during sexual intercourse, or, even, erectile dysfunction. But, more commonly, it may not produce any symptoms at all until the later stages. Many factors, including genetics and diet, have been implicated in the development of prostate cancer.Diagnosing it is facilitated by 2 main tests: the DRE or Digital Rectal Exam – which can be performed in the clinic by the urologist and the PSA or Prostate Specific Antigen – a blood exam which is done in most labs. At times, it may become necessary to have a transrectal ultrasound (TRUS) of the pr ostate done. May mga screening tests gaya ng pagkapa ng doktor sa prostata sa Digital Rectal Exam (DRE)  o ang pagsusuri sa dugo ng Prostate-Specific Antigen (PSA). Ito'y maaaring gawin bawat 1-2 taon mula sa edad 40.Magpatingin sa doktor para sa anumang sintomas ng pag-ihi gaya ng balisawsaw na hindi nawawala, parang may natitirang ihi sa pantog, pag-ihi ng dugo, pagtitibi at pamamayat. The Prostate Cancer Awareness Month June 15, 2012, 10:28pm MANILA, Philippines — Recognizing that prostate cancer is the most common type of cancer affecting the male population of the world, Prostate Cancer Awareness Month is celebrated in many countries around the globe to heighten awareness of the disease which affects 250,000 and which causes one death every hour.In the Philippines, June of every year is celebrated as Prostate Cancer Awareness Month. Prostate cancer occurs when the cells of the prostate – a small, walnut-shaped gland found below the bladder – mutate into c ancer cells. These cells may spread from the prostate to other parts of the body, such as the lymph nodes and the bones. While the exact cause of prostate cancer remains unknown, a number of risk factors have been identified, including age, family history, diet, infection, and inflammation of the prostate.Men who eat a lot of red meat or high-fat dairy products, and eat fewer fruits and vegetables are most like to get the disease. Nine out of 10 adults are unaware that cancer of the prostate can develop slowly, unnoticed. Men with early stages of prostate cancer seldom experience symptoms; these manifest after several years when the cancer is large enough to put pressure on the urethra (the tube that drains urine from the bladder).Some of the symptoms are: Difficulty and pain in passing urine; passing urine more frequent than usual, especially at night; traces of blood in the urine; and erectile dysfunction. Early last year, the House of Representatives transmitted to the Senate Hou se Bill 590 (Prostate Cancer Public Awareness Act) calling for the creation of a public education program on killer diseases, including prostate cancer and other leading types of cancer.Males aged 40 and above are encouraged to undergo regular physical examinations for prostate cancer and other types of cancer. Let us also encourage male members of our families and households to have a regular and thorough physical examination especially when they reach the age 40, as early detection of prostate cancer will enable them to immediately seek appropriate medical treatment.Relevant government and private institutions would do well to intensify research efforts to better understand the disease, and achieve breakthroughs in terms of prevention and cure. CONGRATULATIONS! prostate cancer now ranks as the 6th most common cancer in the Philippines, the 4th most common cancer among males? Kanser sa baga (Lung cancer) Kanser sa atay (liver cancer) Kanser sa prostata (prostate cancer) Kanser sa b ituka (colon cancer)

Why Was the Irish Revolution of 1919-21?

On December 6 1921 the Anglo-Irish treaty was drafted and signed by representatives of both the Irish and British Governments. After centuries of bitter feuding involving both sides the British Government was for the first time to offer the Irish independence. In this essay I seek to outline how the Irish revolution of 1919 and 1921 was successful in achieving Irish independence. Richard English says, â€Å"There had never been any chance of a formal military victory†¦ nor in practice of the British recognising an Irish republic. [1] If English is right to say this then how did the Irish manage to gain independence when the odds were stacked against them both militarily and politically? I believe that independence was reached for a number of reasons to be discussed in more detail later. These factors can be divided into the two crucial areas of political and military. Politically, there was a list of British failures including the negative publicity attracted by the revolution at home, pressure from America and the Government of Ireland Act. Failures only exacerbated by political achievements on the Irish side.Such as De Valera’s trip to the U. S to canvass American support for the revolution plus the establishment of Dail Eireann and its de facto courts. The next section of the essay will be based on the military issues. Was the revolution’s success down to Britain’s failures or Ireland’s triumph of military tactics? Military mistakes were made on the British side which nullified the fact that they had a vastly superior army. The harsh reprisals in nationalist territories for example stoked tensions unnecessarily. A large part of the revolutions success could be attributed to the military strengths of the IRA.With Michael Collins at the head the IRA was extremely strong tactically and used guerrilla warfare to great effect. The also had a mass intelligence system to rival any according to figures like Thomas Bowden for instanc e. Although some historians such as Peter Hart try to unravel the legend of Michael Collins and believe he did not have quite as big a role in the war as many would later claim. Political In order for the revolution to work the IRA had to defeat Britain politically and in a propaganda war as well as militarily.It has to be noted that as far back as 1916 the Irish public had no interest in a revolting. The men who took part in the Easter Rising were looked upon as villains in the immediate aftermath not heroes. It was political failure that allowed such a dramatic swing in public opinion to take place. The harsh treatment of the rebels was the turning point in Irish popular opinion. It formed the motivation for many who joined the IRA during the revolution becoming a superb propaganda tool for the republican cause. With each execution of the men who took part in Ireland the fury grew.A student in the University College of Dublin Barry once studied remarked, â€Å"I never experienced anything like this surging fury with the news produced in everyone. †[2] Later in the interview the student claims that there was notable rejoice when three Englishmen were shot for every Irishman hung. Primary quotes like this go some way to showing the feelings of resentment caused through Britain’s political own goals that multiplied the supporters of an armed revolution in a matter of days. It was not only public opinion in Ireland that was affected by the mistakes of the British administration.Public opinion in Britain throughout the revolution had reached a low. Many normal British citizens were horrified by what they saw as atrocities going on in their name. A sketch of opinion at the time can be viewed in a report of the Labour commission to Ireland in 1921. The report claims that the results of a government policy of reprisals on the people manifests in three main ways they are health economic and spirit. The report states, â€Å"months of oppression, coercio n, and physical violence cannot but have far reaching effects upon the people who suffer under them. The Labour party believed at the time that British Government policy was to the detriment of the economy both in Ireland and in Britain. While the armed forces â€Å"provocative behaviour† was only creating â€Å"a new bitterness of spirit† among the people. Perhaps a concluding line from the document may sum up the thoughts and fears of many in Britain. â€Å"Things are being done in the name of Britain which must make her name stink in the nostrils of the whole world†[3] A crucial failure of British policy was the Government of Ireland Act passed in 1920.The Act was to create two subordinate parliaments one in Belfast and one in Dublin. The Belfast Parliament comprised of the same six counties that would later make up Northern Ireland. The Act was ignored in the twenty six counties but the Dail was powerless to prevent its operation in the North. Ronan Fanning believes that the Act later caused the British to give away more independence than previously hoped by the very fact it had Ireland divided into separate legislative bodies never an intention of the Act. Britain continually faced U. S pressure to solve the Irish question.Lloyd George faced constant pressure from U. S president Woodrow Wilson. It is said in Hopkinson’s book that Wilson told him until the Irish question was resolved it was bound to not only affect the relations between England and the U. S but inevitably effect the relationship of England with her colonies as well. [4] It would be wrong for one to say the Irish revolution of 1919-1921 in achieving Irish independence was all down to Britain’s failure politically. For one to do claim would do a great injustice to many strengths the Irish displayed politically before independence was achieved.Three factors to be considered here are the rise of Sinn Fein, De Valera’s canvassing of U. S support and the creation of the Dail parliament and Courts. The rise of Sinn Fein led to a radicalisation of the masses which had previously not existed in Ireland before this the majority were happy with Home Rule now it was all or nothing. When discussing this many historians would say that the rise Sinn Fein was as much if not more a consequence of Britain’s failings more than any great genius on behalf of Sinn Fein. A school of thought shared by historians including Hopkinson and Dangerfield.Dangerfield was of the belief that by not implementing Home Rule the rise of a more radical politics was unavoidable. â€Å"The point is that when the concept of Home Rule vanished†¦ Nationalist Ireland drifted into a position were only republican and revolutionary leadership became possible. †[5] Once this process had begun it was simply irreversible. Whereas Hopkinson would state that the British Government had a misplaced optimism involving Sinn Fein. They tried to suppress them by ma king many arrests which all led to propaganda victories for the party.Who could now claim they were unjustly victimised. â€Å"Like many other British politician both before and since, they believed that a few extremists were the problem and that usual order would be restored once they were dealt with. †[6] By trying to introduce conscription in Ireland Britain only managed to give Sinn Fein another boost. Townshend asserts, â€Å"In resistance to conscription, the Sinn Fein leadership found for the first time a national political issue which could mobilise the mass of the people. †[7] Not all of Sinn Fein’s rise can be blamed on the British according to Peter Hart.The party he argued was strengthened by female involvement and the support of first time female voters. De Valera’s visit to the Treaty of Versailles may not have laid to the American backed independence hoped but was beneficial in other areas. Yet despite this there was support for his cause i n America. According to Ferriter, De Valera managed to raise something in the region of $6 million between January 1920 and October 1921 a figure higher than that raised in Ireland. Ferriter asserts that to call Irish Nationalism a mass movement in the U. S by 1920 was no exaggeration.Perhaps the central political success by Ireland before eventually achieving independence was the creation of Dail Eireann on January 21 1919. An illegal parliament based in Dublin separate from British control. The Dail followed the path of which Ronan Fanning called â€Å"Sinn Fein’s unilateral solution to the age old problem of the constitutional relationship between Britain and Ireland was to deny that there was any legitimate connection. †[8] Thus it made sense that the Dail’s first law was to break with Britain. Townshend was complimentary in speaking of the decision to set up Dail Eireann. Their (nationalists) action in assembling on 21 January 1919 as Dail Eireann, the Parl iament of Ireland was in itself revolutionary. †[9] At the beginning Britain simply ignored this new parliament. They shared the same beliefs Stephen Gwynn echoed in 1921. â€Å"When the decision was taken to constitute the Irish members into an Irish parliament people were inclined to laugh. †[10] Gwynn later claimed that the fact the British Government did not initially interfere merely added unreality to the whole proceedings. Yet many believe that when Britain did interfere in 1919 in banning the Dail more harm than good came as a consequence.Arthur Mitchell says the banning of the Dail was not its end but really its making driving it underground was generally to its advantage. The fact that Dail Eireann created its own judicial system greatly undermined British rule. Ferriter points out positives and negatives of these courts. It was said, â€Å"The promptness and efficiency of the courts impressed even most unionists. †[11] Although at times reality bit as Ferriter tells us how figures such as Cathal Brugha the minister of defence had little time for courts they were a distraction from war.Military Despite all the ramifications of each side’s political manoeuvres it is highly unlikely of course the Irish revolution would ever have taken place were it not for what happened militarily. Similar to political, military could also be divided into both Britain’s failures and Irish success. How did the IRA gain a truce when they were fighting the military might of the British Empire? If English’s point earlier in the essay is to be considered the IRA could never have gained a formal military victory.Could it be a case that the British overestimated the IRA’s staying power? For the IRA’s key leader Michael Collins himself believed the IRA was close to breaking point. The British policy of reprisals was in itself a military disaster. Augustein puts the point across that, â€Å"The actual and alleged bad behav iour of the crown forces was an extremely persuasive force which caused and justified a violent response by the IRA in the eyes of men and women on all sides. †[12] Thomas Bowden is of the view that reprisals were advocated at the very top level of British intelligence.Sir Henry Wilson, chief of the Imperial General Staff was a known sponsor of these methods declaring â€Å"shoot all Irish leaders by roster. †[13] On May 21 1921, General McCready sent a memo stating, â€Å"Defeat the IRA by the summer or pullout† It is possible the general did not want to get bogged down in a guerrilla conflict in unfamiliar terrain. Though historians like Townshend believe McCready was giving too much credit to the IRA who would soon fall. While others including Hart have the view that the IRA’s organisation was such McCready was right to issue the memo.In order to achieve independence the IRA had to have been strong militarily. Much of this is put at the door of historia ns to Michael Collins held by many as a master of tactician and great exponent of guerrilla warfare. Collins is chiefly judged in history as the main man behind the revolution. One such historian is Dangerfield who complements Collins highly. â€Å"Neither Richard Mulcahy, the volunteers chief of staff, nor the Minister of defence come close to Collins, with his administrative genius, his enormous energy, his warm blooded presence, his cold and concerted purpose. [14] Strong praise for a man Peter Hart claims never held a gun post 1916. For Collins was based in Dublin mainly undertaking intelligence duties. ———————– [1] English, p29 [2] Augustein [3] Labour, pp54-56 [4] Hopkinson, p33 [5] Dangerfield, p246 [6] Hopkinson, p31 [7] Townshend, p318 [8] Fanning pp1-2 [9] Townshend, p328 [10] Gwynn, p62 [11] Ferriter, p202 [12] Augustein, ‘Motivation’ [13] Bowden, p119 [14] Dangerfield, p313

Euripides Support of Women’s Rights Essay - 4032 Words

Euripides Support of Women’s Rights One can hardly deny that in Euripides’ plays women are often portrayed as weak, uncertain, and torn between what they must do and what they can bring themselves to do. Other women appear to be the root of grave evils, or simply perpetrators of heinous crimes. In a day when analysis of characters and plot had yet to be invented, it is easy to see why he might have been thought to be very much against women. However, when looking back with current understanding of what Euripides was doing at the time, armed with knowledge of plot devices and Socratic philosophy, this argument simply does not hold up. In fact, a very strong argument can be made to the opposite, that Euripides was in fact†¦show more content†¦To better understand this difference, a more in depth explanation of the art of tragedy is necessary. Tragedy was unique of all the forms of Greek art; it was seen as the only combination of the two â€Å"classes† of art. These two classes are named afte r Apollo and Dionysus, the two Greek art deities (Nietzsche 1). The Apollonian influence was seen as the art of things of form and structure, the molding or creation of something tangible. The Dionysian, on the other hand, was seen as the more plastic arts, music in particular, where the art lies as much in the performance as the conception. The Apollonian was seen as a creation brought on by a dream-like state, perhaps induced by a god or sleep, while the Dionysian is usually attributed to high spirits, such as drunkenness (Nietzsche 1). As stated before, Tragedy was the unique combination of these two art influences. The Apollonian influence is seen in the writing of the play, as well as in its tangible aspects, the stage and costumes, for instance. The Dionysian art is represented by the music and by the exclusive nature of each performance (Nietzsche 2). The way Nietzsche saw it, the epitome of this was represented by the work of Sophocles and Aeschylus (Nietzsche 42). Euripides represented something contrary to the art of tragedy in the way it had been previously implemented. It is well documented that Euripides consorted withShow MoreRelatedCompare And Contrast Jason And Medea1148 Words   |  5 Pagesorg/stable/20546591. Accessed 12 Sept. 2017. This article explores the laws of marriage in Roman culture. While both Euripides and Seneca hold two of the most acclaimed versions, Laura Abrahamsen describes how Seneca’s version may be best suited in representing a Roman retelling of the legend and how the traditional social constructs may have added to a negative perception of Medea. 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